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1、Many people insist that... 很多人(堅(jiān)持)認(rèn)為……
這句話乍看沒(méi)亮點(diǎn),但將眾人皆知的"think"換為"insist"有沒(méi)有覺(jué)得高大上了許多?
2、With the development of science and technology, more and more people believe that... 隨著科技的發(fā)展,越來(lái)越多的人認(rèn)為……
這個(gè)可是小編當(dāng)年的“殺手锏”啊,雖談不上洋氣,但正確率百分百啊,還超好記!
3、A lot of people seem to think that... 很多人似乎認(rèn)為……
"think"終于閃亮登場(chǎng),但"seem to"為整個(gè)句子增添了點(diǎn)婉轉(zhuǎn)之感,這種客觀的方式貌似較受老外(尤其腐國(guó)人)喜愛(ài)。
引出不同觀點(diǎn)的萬(wàn)能模板:
1、People's views on... vary from person to person. Some hold that... . However, others believe that.... 人們對(duì)……的觀點(diǎn)因人而異。有些人認(rèn)為.....然而其他人卻認(rèn)為……
看這個(gè)長(zhǎng)度就已然鶴立雞群。其實(shí),也是一個(gè)蠻簡(jiǎn)單也好記的模板。
2、Attitudes towards (drugs) vary from person to person. 人們對(duì)待吸毒的態(tài)度因人而異。
乍一看,跟上句的開(kāi)頭神似,其實(shí)就是省略掉了"people's",不僅清爽而且好像高端了一些。
3、People may have different opinions on... 人們對(duì)……可能會(huì)有不同的見(jiàn)解。
又是一個(gè)婉轉(zhuǎn)的句子,展示其客觀性。
4、There are different opinions among people as to... 關(guān)于……人們的觀點(diǎn)大不相同。
"different"雖拉低了水準(zhǔn),但"as to"又拯救了回來(lái)。
5、Different people hold different attitudes toward (failure). 對(duì)(失敗)人們的態(tài)度各不相同。
這句話貌似亮點(diǎn)不多,頂多一個(gè)"hold",但也是安全牌,容易理解。
得出最終結(jié)論的萬(wàn)能模板:
1、Taking all these factors into consideration, we naturally come to the conclusion that... 把所有這些因素加以考慮,我們自然會(huì)得出結(jié)論……
很完全的答法,"take sth into consideration"短語(yǔ)的應(yīng)用,加分。
2、Taking into account all these factors, we may reasonably come to the conclusion that... 考慮所有這些因素,我們可能會(huì)得出合理的結(jié)論……
"Take into account sth"短語(yǔ)似乎又比上句的"take sth into consideration"提升了一個(gè)層次。
3、Hence/Therefore, we'd better come to the conclusion that... 因此,自然我們得出以下結(jié)論。。。
"Hence"一詞用在文章中大氣吧,但別平時(shí)口語(yǔ)中用,否則即使老外也用一種看老古董的眼神看你。。。
再特意提一句:"we'd better"在這里不是“不得不”或“最好”的意思,而是一種自然而然,水到渠成的得出結(jié)論。
4、There is no doubt that (job-hopping) has its drawbacks as well as merits. 毫無(wú)疑問(wèn),跳槽有優(yōu)點(diǎn)也有缺點(diǎn)。
短語(yǔ)"there is no doubt that"上線,同時(shí)運(yùn)用我們的老朋友"as well as"增加看點(diǎn)。
5、All in all, we cannot live without... But at the same time we must try to find out new ways to cope with the problems that would arise. 總之,我們沒(méi)有……是無(wú)法生活的。但同時(shí),我們必須尋求新的解決辦法來(lái)對(duì)付可能出現(xiàn)的新問(wèn)題。
這句話一般用于作文結(jié)尾,屬萬(wàn)能句式,句式較為簡(jiǎn)單,方便操作。
提出最終建議的萬(wàn)能模板:
1、It is high time that we put an end to the (trend). 該是我們停止這一趨勢(shì)的時(shí)候了。
"It is high time" 打頭,為該句增色。注:that 后跟虛擬語(yǔ)氣,后跟動(dòng)詞的一般過(guò)去式,表示“是某人做……的時(shí)候了”或者“是某人不做……的時(shí)候了”
2、It is time to take the advice of ... and to put special emphasis on the improvement of ... 該是采納……的建議,并對(duì)……的進(jìn)展給予非常重視的時(shí)候了。
去掉一個(gè)"high",畫(huà)風(fēng)完全不一樣,不用過(guò)去式,只需用"to do"來(lái)替代。
3、There is no doubt that enough concern must be paid to the problem of ... 毫無(wú)疑問(wèn),對(duì)……問(wèn)題應(yīng)予以足夠的重視。
"there is no doubt that"+被動(dòng)還是蠻經(jīng)典的組合。
4、Obviously,.... If we want to do something... , it is essential that... 顯然,如果我們想做某事,我們需要……
這句有些老生常談,稍微不“常”的就是"essential" 替代了"important"。
5、Only in this way can we... 只有這樣,我們才能...
Only+倒裝,經(jīng)典萬(wàn)能句式,還能看出點(diǎn)水平呢。
6、It must be realized that... 我們必須意識(shí)到...
把人人都會(huì)的"I realized"升格為被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài),省略了主語(yǔ),監(jiān)考老師絕對(duì)會(huì)眼前一亮的!
英語(yǔ)四級(jí)作文預(yù)示后果萬(wàn)能模板:
1、Obviously, if we don't control the problem, the chances are that... will lead us in danger. 很明顯,如果我們不能控制這一問(wèn)題,很有可能我們會(huì)陷入危險(xiǎn)。
"the chances are that"替代了"may",果然說(shuō)話拐彎的生物不止是中國(guó)人。
2、No doubt, unless we take effective measures, it is very likely that... 毫無(wú)疑問(wèn),除非我們采取有效措施,否則很可能會(huì)……
作文結(jié)尾萬(wàn)用句,毫無(wú)破綻。
3、It is urgent that immediate measures should be taken to stop the situation. 應(yīng)立即采取措施阻止這一事態(tài)的發(fā)展。
1、With the development of science and technology, more and more people believe that... 隨著科技的發(fā)展,越來(lái)越多的人認(rèn)為……(絕對(duì)經(jīng)典,絕對(duì)萬(wàn)能,尤其在緊臟的頭腦一片空白下使用也不失安全牌)
2、Many people insist that... 很多人(堅(jiān)持)認(rèn)為…… (insist還是比較高大上的呢)
3、A lot of people seem to think that... 很多人似乎認(rèn)為……(seem to委婉的說(shuō)法,也是討喜的一種說(shuō)法)
二、引出不同觀點(diǎn)的萬(wàn)能模板:
1、People's views on... vary from person to person. Some hold that... . However, others believe that.... 人們對(duì)……的觀點(diǎn)因人而異。有些人認(rèn)為.....然而其他人卻認(rèn)為…… (vary from...to...經(jīng)典搭配,亮出觀點(diǎn)的時(shí)候適用。)
2、Attitudes towards (drugs) vary from person to person. 人們對(duì)待吸毒的態(tài)度因人而異。(towards,亮眼詞)
3、People may have different opinions on... 人們對(duì)……可能會(huì)有不同的見(jiàn)解。(may委婉用法)
4、There are different opinions among people as to... 關(guān)于……人們的觀點(diǎn)大不相同。(as to用法較高級(jí))
5、Different people hold different attitudes toward (failure). 對(duì)(失敗)人們的態(tài)度各不相同。(hold,亮點(diǎn)詞)
三、得出最終結(jié)論的萬(wàn)能模板:
1、Taking all these factors into consideration, we naturally come to the conclusion that... 把所有這些因素加以考慮,我們自然會(huì)得出結(jié)論……("take sth into consideration"為固定搭配)
2、Taking into account all these factors, we may reasonably come to the conclusion that... 考慮所有這些因素,我們可能會(huì)得出合理的結(jié)論……("Take into account sth"再次提升了一個(gè)層次")
3、Hence/Therefore, we'd better come to the conclusion that... 因此,自然我們得出以下結(jié)論。。。(Hence,高級(jí)用法;come to the conlusion that萬(wàn)能總結(jié)句型;had better,水到渠成的流暢感)
4、There is no doubt that (job-hopping) has its drawbacks as well as merits. 毫無(wú)疑問(wèn),跳槽有優(yōu)點(diǎn)也有缺點(diǎn)。("there is no doubt that"萬(wàn)能經(jīng)典搭配;"drawbacks"與"merits"的使用提升檔次)
5、All in all, we cannot live without... But at the same time we must try to find out new ways to cope with the problems that would arise. 總之,我們沒(méi)有……是無(wú)法生活的。但同時(shí),我們必須尋求新的解決辦法來(lái)對(duì)付可能出現(xiàn)的新問(wèn)題。(一般用于結(jié)尾,萬(wàn)能句式;cope with的出現(xiàn)比較亮眼)
四、提出最終建議的萬(wàn)能模板:
1、It is high time that we put an end to the (trend). 該是我們停止這一趨勢(shì)的時(shí)候了。("It is high time that" 后跟虛擬語(yǔ)氣,即動(dòng)詞的一般過(guò)去式,表示“是做。。。的時(shí)候了”或者“是不做。。。的時(shí)候了”)
2、It is time to take the advice of ... and to put special emphasis on the improvement of ... 該是采納……的建議,并對(duì)……的進(jìn)展給予非常重視的時(shí)候了。(注意"It is high time"與"It is time"的區(qū)別,前者接被動(dòng)語(yǔ)態(tài),后者接"to do"。)
3、There is no doubt that enough concern must be paid to the problem of ... 毫無(wú)疑問(wèn),對(duì)……問(wèn)題應(yīng)予以足夠的重視。("there is no doubt that"+被動(dòng)為固定搭配,也不會(huì)落入俗套)
4、Obviously,.... If we want to do something... , it is essential that... 顯然,如果我們想做某事,我們需要……(essential至少比important高級(jí))
5、Only in this way can we... 只有這樣,我們才能...(Only+倒裝,絕對(duì)經(jīng)典的萬(wàn)能句式)
6、It must be realized that... 我們必須意識(shí)到...(be realized that比we realized 隔著1000個(gè) I think的差距)
五、預(yù)示后果萬(wàn)能模板:
1、Obviously, if we don't control the problem, the chances are that... will lead us in danger. 很明顯,如果我們不能控制這一問(wèn)題,很有可能我們會(huì)陷入危險(xiǎn)。(還是蠻高級(jí)的用法)
how to solve the energy shortage(如何解決能源短缺問(wèn)題)
energy shortage is a very serious problem in the world. many people worry that energy resources on the earth will be exhausted if we use them in an unchecked way. this, most people agree, will cause serious problems and even crisis and jeopardize the survival of mankind .
on the one hand, most people agree that the problem can be solved in one way or another. one is to conserve and save our energy. energy refers not only to coal, oil, or natural gases but also to goods, land and water, etc. most countries have realized the wastefulness in their using of energy. they are trying to conserve energy. for example, some countries have a daylight saving system to use less electricity for lighting. some cities have enforced water savers at public such as restrooms and bars. some have enforced serious penalties on overuse of electricity, water, and farming land. by these means, people hope the drain on energy resources could be slowed down.
however, conservation alone cannot solve the problem. another way, perhaps the best i think,, is to develop new energy resources. obviously, no matter how hard we try to save energy resources and how abundant they are, we will use them up sooner or later. i think there are many energy resources that we can develop and utilize. we don’t have to depend only on the current conventional energy resources. there are many other energy resources that we can develop such as nuclear power, waterpower and solar power. these resources, if developed, can completely replace the conventional energy and thus solve the problem of energy shortage.
[環(huán)境問(wèn)題四級(jí)英語(yǔ)作文]:
(一) Proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great efforts should be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful effects of international tourism.應(yīng)該采取適當(dāng)?shù)拇胧┫拗仆鈬?guó)旅游者的數(shù)量,努力保護(hù)當(dāng)?shù)丨h(huán)境和歷史不受?chē)?guó)際旅游業(yè)的不利影響。
(二) An increasing number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on construction of city. However, this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents, who complain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.越來(lái)越多的專(zhuān)家相信移民對(duì)城市的建設(shè)起到積極作用。然而,越來(lái)越多的城市居民卻懷疑這種說(shuō)法,他們抱怨民工給城市帶來(lái)了許多嚴(yán) 重的問(wèn)題,像犯罪和。
(三) Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to spend much more time waiting for a bus, which is usually crowded with a large number of passengers.許多市民抱怨城市的公交車(chē)太少,以至于他們要花很長(zhǎng)時(shí)間等一輛公交車(chē),而車(chē)上可能已滿載乘客
(四) According to a recent survey, four million people die each year from diseases linked to smoking.依照最近的一項(xiàng)調(diào)查,每年有4,000,000人死于與吸煙有關(guān)的疾病。
(五) The latest surveys show that quite a few children have unpleasant associations with homework.最近的調(diào)查顯示相當(dāng)多的孩子對(duì)家庭作業(yè)沒(méi)什么好感。
(六) No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet.沒(méi)有一項(xiàng)發(fā)明像互聯(lián)網(wǎng)一樣同時(shí)受到如此多的贊揚(yáng)和批評(píng)。
(七) People seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.人們似乎忽視了教育不應(yīng)該隨著畢業(yè)而結(jié)束這一事實(shí)。
(八) An increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete with graduation.越來(lái)越多的人開(kāi)始意識(shí)到教育不能隨著畢業(yè)而結(jié)束。
(九) When it comes to education, the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.說(shuō)到教育,大部分人認(rèn)為其是一個(gè)終生的學(xué)習(xí)。
(十) Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a person's physical fitness.許多專(zhuān)家指出體育鍛煉直接有助于身體健康。
(十一) There is no denying the fact that air pollution is an extremely serious problem: the city authorities should take strong measures to deal with it.無(wú)可否認(rèn),空氣污染是一個(gè)極其嚴(yán)重的問(wèn)題:城市當(dāng)局應(yīng)該采取有力措施來(lái)解決它。
(十二) An investigation shows that female workers tend to have a favorable attitude toward retirement.一項(xiàng)調(diào)查顯示婦女歡迎退休。
(十三) A proper part-time job does not occupy students' too much time. In fact, it is unhealthy for them to spend all of time on their study. As an old saying goes: All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.一份適當(dāng)?shù)臉I(yè)余工作并不會(huì)占用學(xué)生太多的時(shí)間,事實(shí)上,把全部的時(shí)間都用到學(xué)習(xí)上并不健康,正如那句老話:只工作,不玩耍,聰明的孩子會(huì)變傻。
(十四) Although this view is wildly held, this is little evidence that education can be obtained at any age and at any place.盡管這一觀點(diǎn)被廣泛接受,很少有證據(jù)表明教育能夠在任何地點(diǎn)、任何年齡進(jìn)行。
(十五) Any government, which is blind to this point, may pay a heavy price.任何政府忽視這一點(diǎn)都將付出巨大的代價(jià)。
(十六) Nowadays, many students always go into raptures at the mere mention of the coming life of high school or college they will begin. Unfortunately, for most young people, it is not pleasant experience on their first day on campus.當(dāng)前,一提到即將開(kāi)始的學(xué)校生活,許多學(xué)生都會(huì)興高采烈。然而,對(duì)多數(shù)年輕人來(lái)說(shuō),校園剛開(kāi)始的日子并不是什么愉快的經(jīng)歷。
(十七) In view of the seriousness of this problem, effective measures should be taken before things get worse.考慮到問(wèn)題的嚴(yán)重性,在事態(tài)進(jìn)一步惡化之前,必須采取有效的措施。
(十八) The majority of students believe that part-time job will provide them with more opportunities to develop their interpersonal skills, which may put them in a favorable position in the future job markets.大部分學(xué)生相信業(yè)余工作會(huì)使他們有更多機(jī)會(huì)發(fā)展人際交往能力,而這對(duì)他們未來(lái)找工作是非常有好處的。
這類(lèi)作文時(shí),注意以下幾點(diǎn):
審題時(shí),除了要把握好圖表的表層信息外, 還要分析圖標(biāo)的深層含義,如原因、根源、可能的發(fā)展趨勢(shì)等。圖表中所提供的說(shuō)明文字往往是問(wèn)題的切入點(diǎn),一定要仔細(xì)分析。
描述數(shù)據(jù)時(shí)要抓住重點(diǎn),為中心服務(wù),不必面面俱到,切忌毫無(wú)目的地羅列圖表中的數(shù)據(jù)。如果數(shù)據(jù)較多,抓住圖表中的極端點(diǎn)(如最大或最小、最多或最少,最好或最差)和基本相同進(jìn)行描述。
主題句應(yīng)明確,最好放在文章的開(kāi)頭,這樣會(huì)使重點(diǎn)突出,主題明了。
常見(jiàn)模板
第一段:總體描述圖表,指明時(shí)間段,指出突出變化或不同
常用句型或短語(yǔ):
As is clearly shown in the char/ table/graph, ___________
According to the figures given in the table/chart/graph, ____________
It can be seen from the table/chart/graph, _____________________.
The figures in the table/chart reflect that ________________.
especially, ________________(指出突出變化)
第二段:(分析原因)
There are several factors leading to this change / difference ……..
There are several reasons for _____________.(引出原因)
To begin with, _______(原因一)
In addition, ______________(原因二0
For example, _________(舉例說(shuō)明)
Some people believe that children should be allowed to stay at home and play until they are six or seven years old. Others believe that it is important for young children to go to school as soon as possible. What do you think are the advantages of attending school from a young age? In many places today, children start primary school at around the age of six or seven. However, because it is more likely now that both parents work, there is little opportunity for children to stay in their own home up to that age. Instead, they will probably go to a nursery school when they are much younger.
While some people think this may be damaging to a child’s development, or to a child’s relationship with his or her parents, in fact there are many advantages to having school experience at a young age. Firstly, a child will learn to interact with a lot of different people and some children learn to communicate very early because of this. They are generally more confident and independent than children who stay at home with their parents and who are not used to strangers or new situations. Such children find their first day at school at the age of six very frightening and this may have a negative effect on how they learn. Another advantage of going to school at an early age is that children develop faster socially. They make friends and learn how to get on withother children of a similar age. This is often not possible at home because they are the only child, or because their brothers or sisters are older or younger.
So overall, I believe that, attending school from a young age is good for most children. They still spend plenty of time at home with their parents, so they can benefit from both environments.
【關(guān)鍵詞】大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí);圖表作文;認(rèn)知文體學(xué);圖形―背景
大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)圖表作文是四級(jí)考試各類(lèi)作文中難點(diǎn),也是整套四級(jí)試卷命題人的重點(diǎn)之一。其命題模式為全英文形式,符合命題人“既考寫(xiě)作又考理解”的考查初衷。圖表作文的隱含信息量更多,對(duì)于表達(dá)的要求更高,因此也更容易出現(xiàn)偏題現(xiàn)象。為了幫助學(xué)生實(shí)現(xiàn)取得四級(jí)考試好成績(jī)的目標(biāo),對(duì)于作為首道題目的作文應(yīng)予以足夠的重視。
認(rèn)知文體學(xué)起源于上個(gè)世紀(jì)90年代,是跨語(yǔ)言學(xué)、文學(xué)研究和認(rèn)知科學(xué)的新的文體學(xué)流派,是從語(yǔ)言選擇和語(yǔ)言模式的認(rèn)知效果為起點(diǎn),探討語(yǔ)言形式選擇的認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)和認(rèn)知過(guò)程,力圖為語(yǔ)篇及其解讀的關(guān)系提供更系統(tǒng)、更科學(xué)的闡述。主要理論包括語(yǔ)篇世界理論、前景化理論、概念隱喻和整合理論、圖形-背景理論等。新生的認(rèn)知文體學(xué)主要以文學(xué)文本為研究對(duì)象,隨著發(fā)展的成熟其研究領(lǐng)域也擴(kuò)大到了小說(shuō)和戲劇以外的各種非文學(xué)語(yǔ)體乃至非印刷媒介的文體。本文試圖從認(rèn)知文體學(xué)的圖形――背景理論的視角來(lái)解讀四級(jí)圖表作文偏題的認(rèn)知理?yè)?jù),以幫助考生順利完成審題這一步驟,從而優(yōu)質(zhì)完成寫(xiě)作任務(wù)。
一、圖形―背景理論
趙艷芳(2001)認(rèn)為認(rèn)知語(yǔ)言學(xué)在研究語(yǔ)言時(shí)主要采取三種觀點(diǎn):經(jīng)驗(yàn)觀(experiential view)、注意觀(attentional view)、突顯觀(prominence view)。其中突顯觀認(rèn)為,信息的突顯程度決定語(yǔ)言結(jié)構(gòu)中信息的取舍與安排。圖形-背景理論是以突顯(salience,prominence)原則為基礎(chǔ)的認(rèn)知觀。例如:當(dāng)我們觀察周?chē)h(huán)境中的某個(gè)物體時(shí),通常會(huì)把這個(gè)物體作為知覺(jué)上突顯的圖形,把環(huán)境作為認(rèn)知背景。
首先把圖形-背景運(yùn)用于認(rèn)知語(yǔ)言學(xué)研究中是Talmy(2000),他認(rèn)為“圖形”,即注意的焦點(diǎn)部分,指某一認(rèn)知概念或感知中突出的部分,其特別的價(jià)值是突顯。“背景”則是為突出圖形而起襯托作用的部分,相對(duì)于圖形來(lái)講,突顯程度較低,是認(rèn)知上的參照點(diǎn)。決定圖形或者背景的因素包括移動(dòng)方向、觀察的方位、注意的焦點(diǎn)等。匡芳濤、文旭(2003)探討了圖形――背景這一認(rèn)知結(jié)構(gòu)在“語(yǔ)言空間”結(jié)構(gòu)和“時(shí)間事件”結(jié)構(gòu)中的現(xiàn)實(shí)化,認(rèn)為圖形――背景分離原則不僅是一種空間組織的基本認(rèn)知原則,也是語(yǔ)言組織概念內(nèi)容的一個(gè)基本認(rèn)知原則。
二、案例分析
圖表作文是將非漢字信息(通常用圖表表示的數(shù)字或信息)轉(zhuǎn)換成文字信息的一種作文,它要求考生用文字來(lái)描述非文字性的圖表或?qū)D表顯示的關(guān)系作解釋說(shuō)明。這種作文主要測(cè)試考生從非文字材料中獲取信息、分析問(wèn)題和解決問(wèn)題的能力。因此如何正確審題尤為重要。筆者以2013年6月四級(jí)考試的作文之一――父子談?wù)摰估念}目為例來(lái)闡釋圖形――背景理論對(duì)于正確審題的指導(dǎo)作用。
本篇作文試題包括全英文的解題指示和一副以兩個(gè)人物形象、兩句英文對(duì)話和一些日用品實(shí)物組成的漫畫(huà)。英文的解題指示主要是對(duì)考生寫(xiě)作的字?jǐn)?shù)和書(shū)寫(xiě)的時(shí)間以及主題的確立給出了一些限定。除了具體的父子兩人的人物形象之外,漫畫(huà)主要內(nèi)容是這對(duì)父子的對(duì)話。兒子說(shuō):“Dad.I’m a bit worried about disposing of nuclear waste.” 父親回答道:“If you can empty the dustbin here,you can do anything.”書(shū)桌前的角落里放著一個(gè)堆滿雜物的垃圾桶。漫畫(huà)作者為了確保讀者可以正確掌握漫畫(huà)所傳遞的信息,還在垃圾桶上寫(xiě)出 “ dustbin”的字樣。這些日用品雜物都是用來(lái)輔助理解父子對(duì)話的,而并非漫畫(huà)所表達(dá)的主要意圖。因?yàn)槿宋锖臀矬w相比,往往動(dòng)態(tài)的人物是凸顯的圖形而靜態(tài)的物體是襯托的背景。在考生正確認(rèn)知題目中全部詞匯和語(yǔ)法結(jié)構(gòu)的前提下,把兩句對(duì)話都作為審題的對(duì)象,就會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)這篇漫畫(huà)的主題是說(shuō)要從小事做起,不要好高騖遠(yuǎn),與其關(guān)心世界上的大事不如先把身邊的小事做好。那么接下來(lái)就要根據(jù)這一主題構(gòu)思框架,寫(xiě)出各段的主題句,擴(kuò)展段落,綴段成篇。
圖形-背景理論認(rèn)為:要對(duì)圖表中反應(yīng)的問(wèn)題進(jìn)行評(píng)述或者得出相應(yīng)的結(jié)論,首先要看懂圖表所含信息及其相互之間的關(guān)系,也就是確立誰(shuí)是圖形、什么是背景。當(dāng)然這一過(guò)程常常是在無(wú)意識(shí)的情況下完成的。
注意力(attention)是在談及圖形與背景理論的時(shí)候必須被提及的概念。作為動(dòng)態(tài)經(jīng)歷的閱讀,是一種不斷地根據(jù)圖形與背景的關(guān)系來(lái)改變注意力,并能由注意力的變換而重新確定圖形與背景的過(guò)程。這一過(guò)程中注意力是具有選擇性和轉(zhuǎn)移性的。首先,考生在拿到試卷之后,注意力可能會(huì)被作文題目中的漫畫(huà)所吸引,從而使漫畫(huà)作為認(rèn)知圖形得以突顯,而英文的解題指示則弱化為背景。產(chǎn)生這一現(xiàn)象的原因是由于“鮮明的、具有移動(dòng)性的”物體更容易成為圖形。而這一做法可能導(dǎo)致對(duì)主題的遺漏甚至誤判。由于漫畫(huà)的簡(jiǎn)潔抽象和對(duì)話的全英文形式造成考生的失落和恐慌心理,從而給解題帶來(lái)麻煩。在圖表作文的輔導(dǎo)過(guò)程中,教師需要強(qiáng)調(diào)正確的審題認(rèn)知順序,不論是何種形式的圖形表格,都應(yīng)從上到下從左到右的認(rèn)知順序來(lái)完成審題,這種注意力的控制是完成正確審題的第一步。
因此,首先我們把英文的解題指示凸顯為圖形,把整份考卷視為背景。在英文的解題指示中對(duì)考生完成的文章提出了各種明晰的要求,而這些要求都必須被滿足。如“ you are allowed 30 minutes”,“write at least 120 words but no more than 180 words”。這里既有時(shí)間的限制又有字?jǐn)?shù)的要求,考生如果打破這些限制將會(huì)面臨失分甚至是舞弊的處理。這其中最重要的信息還是對(duì)于主題的限制 “your views on the importance of doing small things before undertaking something big.” 由此可見(jiàn),考生的文章是要圍繞從小事做起展開(kāi)的。由于一些考生的注意力優(yōu)先指向了漫畫(huà),使整個(gè)認(rèn)知過(guò)程發(fā)生了混亂,導(dǎo)致一些考生忽視了解題指示中對(duì)主題的要求,片面的看到漫畫(huà)中提到清理垃圾的問(wèn)題,從而把文章的主題錯(cuò)誤的定位于環(huán)境保護(hù)和綠色出行上,使得這一組的圖形――背景關(guān)系由“倒垃圾――從小事做起――背景關(guān)系”變化為“倒垃圾――合理處理垃圾――背景關(guān)系”。此外,還有部分考生被相對(duì)生僻的詞匯 “disposing”和 “nuclear waste”吸引了注意力,從而把主題定義為謹(jǐn)慎開(kāi)發(fā)和使用核能,甚至聯(lián)想到日本的福島核泄漏事件,從而使“倒垃圾――從小事做起――背景關(guān)系”變化為“擔(dān)憂核廢料的處理問(wèn)題――正確對(duì)待和使用核能――背景關(guān)系”。產(chǎn)生這種偏題現(xiàn)象,除去考生使用背誦的模版生搬硬套以外,最主要的是在審題過(guò)程中忽視認(rèn)知的理性順序,遺漏了部分有效信息。這兩種偏題現(xiàn)象都是信息的缺失或者部分信息的非理性放大,造成圖形――背景關(guān)系的缺失和錯(cuò)誤,最終導(dǎo)致審題的失敗。
其次,圖形為漫畫(huà)的凸顯,解題指示弱化為背景。在看懂解題指示之后,漫畫(huà)的作用是用來(lái)審核所確定主題的正確性的。漫畫(huà)由于其鮮明生動(dòng)的特點(diǎn),雖然簡(jiǎn)潔但卻涵蓋了豐富的內(nèi)容。考生應(yīng)在解題指示的背景中來(lái)解讀漫畫(huà),擯棄無(wú)關(guān)的內(nèi)容,凸顯主題。根據(jù)認(rèn)知的順序或者兩句對(duì)話的語(yǔ)義,都可以看出兒子是對(duì)話的發(fā)起者,而父親是對(duì)話的承接者。“Dad” 這一稱(chēng)呼也驗(yàn)證了這一點(diǎn),相反如果父親的話語(yǔ)是以 “Son”為起點(diǎn)的,那么一般來(lái)說(shuō)父親就是對(duì)話的發(fā)起者了,因?yàn)榉Q(chēng)謂一般是用來(lái)引起受話人注意的。兒子說(shuō)擔(dān)憂核廢料的處理;父親說(shuō)如果你可以把這里的垃圾倒掉,你可以做任何事。父親的反饋看似沒(méi)有回答兒子的擔(dān)憂,和兒子的話不相關(guān)。實(shí)際上,父親話語(yǔ)的意思是不要去擔(dān)心核廢料的處理了,先把我們家的垃圾處理了;只有把小事做好了,才有可能做好國(guó)家大事。這也就完成了漫畫(huà)作者從“擔(dān)憂核廢料的處理――正確對(duì)待和使用核能――背景關(guān)系”到“倒垃圾――從小事做起――背景關(guān)系”的轉(zhuǎn)變。從而呼應(yīng)“解題指導(dǎo)――背景關(guān)系”中的同一主題。
最后,把父親的話凸顯為圖形,把整個(gè)社會(huì)當(dāng)做映襯背景。如果考生把父與子之間的對(duì)話僅僅看作是父親對(duì)兒子的教育,而把主題定位為教育問(wèn)題或是有效的兒童教育的方式,這種做法是把“社會(huì)教育問(wèn)題”視為背景關(guān)系,把父親對(duì)話的語(yǔ)義“從小事做起”升級(jí)為“如何教育孩子”。這種立意之所以不正確是因?yàn)椋紫人耆珤仐壛私忸}指示,只把注意力集中在漫畫(huà)上。其次對(duì)漫畫(huà)中父子的對(duì)話也理解錯(cuò)誤,主觀拔高了漫畫(huà)作者所要表達(dá)的意圖,把“倒垃圾――從小事做起――背景關(guān)系”任意的更改為 “父子談話――兒童教育問(wèn)題――社會(huì)教育問(wèn)題”。不考慮解題指導(dǎo),把漫畫(huà)的主旨定義為僅僅是父親對(duì)兒子的勸告和期望,以此為作文的主題也是片面的。正確的做法是把這一勸告放在社會(huì)的大環(huán)境之下,也就是以整個(gè)社會(huì)為背景,使得“倒垃圾――從小事做起――背景關(guān)系”得到升華,變?yōu)椤皬男∈伦銎皎D―全社會(huì)”,這才是本篇作文題目的命題人的測(cè)試意圖。
總之,在大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)圖表作文的寫(xiě)作過(guò)程中,首先要克服心理障礙,消除對(duì)此類(lèi)作文形式的陌生感。最重要的是認(rèn)真審題,正確理解解題指導(dǎo)和圖表,理解命題人的測(cè)試目的。本文從認(rèn)知文體學(xué)的圖表――背景理論的視角對(duì)于正確審題提供了一種更為科學(xué)系統(tǒng)的嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)?shù)姆椒ǎM麑?duì)于四級(jí)作文的應(yīng)試以及教學(xué)均有一定的輔助作用。
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系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)言學(xué)興起于20世紀(jì)下半葉,“系統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法”這個(gè)名稱(chēng)的使用始于60年代中期,而“系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)法”這個(gè)名稱(chēng)始于1980年。澳大利亞語(yǔ)言學(xué)家韓禮德(Halliday)是最早從事系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)法理論研究者,他的系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)法具有公認(rèn)的代表性和權(quán)威性。韓禮德認(rèn)為,語(yǔ)言具備三大純理功能,即概念功能、人際功能及語(yǔ)言本身所具有的語(yǔ)篇功能(Halliday,1985)。本文基于系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)法中主位推進(jìn)模式理論,希望提出大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)作文教學(xué)的新思路。
二、理論梳理
大多數(shù)系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)言學(xué)家認(rèn)為,語(yǔ)言三大功能中的語(yǔ)篇功能在系統(tǒng)功能語(yǔ)法中主要體現(xiàn)為篇章的主位選擇。主位(theme)和述位(rheme)目的在于研究句子中不同成分在語(yǔ)言交際中發(fā)揮的作用有何不同。位于句首的成分在交際中有一種特殊的作用,這種論述的起點(diǎn)被稱(chēng)為主位,其他部分稱(chēng)為述位,分別表示已知信息和未知信息。韓禮德認(rèn)為,在句子層面上,有兩個(gè)位置最為重要――句首和句末。他把主位定義為:“信息開(kāi)始的地方,也就是小句所關(guān)心的成分”(Halliday,1985),也就是句子開(kāi)始的詞。如:
Last year at Harvard John finished his graduation thesis.//John last year finished his graduation thesis at Harvard.//At Harvard last year John finished his graduation thesis
初讀這些句子,他們的不同似乎只是體現(xiàn)在單詞出現(xiàn)順序的重組,表達(dá)的都是相同的意義。但是如果再進(jìn)行仔細(xì)閱讀,我們發(fā)現(xiàn),雖然這些句子的措辭相同,但卻不可以互相代替。這就是小句的不同主位選擇――放在句首的不同成分會(huì)給小句帶來(lái)不同。這種組織信息的語(yǔ)篇功能被韓禮德稱(chēng)做關(guān)聯(lián)功能(Halliday,1974),認(rèn)為主位的選擇往往會(huì)暴露說(shuō)話者的意圖和目的。除了在小句中,語(yǔ)篇中的主位選擇也極為重要,把語(yǔ)篇連接成為有機(jī)信息整體,如:
Last Sunday my parents and I went to visit my grandma. She was so happy. We played cards together for the whole afternoon.//Last Sunday my parents and I went to visit my grandma. Mrs. Brown was so happy. The Green’s played cards together for the whole afternoon.
比較這兩段話,我們不難發(fā)現(xiàn)雖然它們語(yǔ)法都正確,但是第二段話很難理解,因?yàn)楹茈y找到“my parents and I ” “Mrs. Brown” 和“the Greens”之間的關(guān)系。這就是在語(yǔ)篇中主位的選擇為語(yǔ)篇所帶來(lái)的連貫性,前后句子的主位述位之間會(huì)發(fā)生各種聯(lián)系和變化,這種聯(lián)系和變化被定義為“主位推進(jìn)――Thematic Progression” (TP)。TP建立起語(yǔ)篇之間的內(nèi)部聯(lián)系,是最重要的實(shí)現(xiàn)語(yǔ)篇銜接和連貫的工具之一(胡壯麟,1994)。
Fries(1983)和Danes(1974)等對(duì)貌似無(wú)章可循的語(yǔ)言素材中總結(jié)出主位變化的基本模式,主要有主位同一型(主位相同,述位不同)、述位同一型(主位不同,述位相同)、延續(xù)型(前一句的述位成為后一句的主位)、交叉型(前一句的主位是后一句的述位)等。大量的語(yǔ)言素材表明,只用單一模式的語(yǔ)篇很少,大多數(shù)都比較復(fù)雜,是多種模式的混合使用。
三、大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)作文教學(xué)實(shí)踐
在高職院校,能通過(guò)大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四級(jí)考試的同學(xué)都是學(xué)習(xí)的佼佼者,但是當(dāng)中的作文部分一直是學(xué)生得分率較低的部分。如果在教學(xué)中引入主位和述位,以及主位推進(jìn)的概念,可以極大地幫助學(xué)生學(xué)會(huì)理清自己的思路,清楚自己想表達(dá)的內(nèi)容;從什么地方開(kāi)始說(shuō)起;從什么地方引入新的話題;到語(yǔ)篇結(jié)束時(shí)重點(diǎn)的信息在哪里。具體的教學(xué)實(shí)踐體現(xiàn)在教會(huì)學(xué)生分析自己寫(xiě)的文章中的主位和述位,分析自己主要使用了哪些主位推進(jìn)模式,學(xué)會(huì)單獨(dú)和符合使用多種不同的主位推進(jìn)模式來(lái)使自己的文章內(nèi)容豐富、銜接嚴(yán)密、結(jié)構(gòu)清晰;也可教會(huì)學(xué)生在主位推進(jìn)的理論視角下來(lái)修改自己的文章,如以Looking for jobs為題:
I(主位) am a student(述位). Looking for a job(主位) is a must(述位). I(主位) must work harder and harder to create a better future. This can fulfill my life.
在這個(gè)學(xué)生的語(yǔ)篇中,主位述位各自孤立,沒(méi)有體現(xiàn)任何主位推進(jìn)模式,文章顯得凌亂不連貫。如果在此篇章中復(fù)合使用主位同一型、延續(xù)型、交叉型等主位推進(jìn)模式,可將其修改為:
I am a student, so I must look for jobs. Looking for jobs requires me to work harder and harder to create a better future, which will definitely fulfill my life.
修改后的句子在不同的主位推進(jìn)模式下實(shí)現(xiàn)了更好的銜接和連貫,增強(qiáng)了語(yǔ)篇的表達(dá)力。
我到了科技館,如同剛出籠的小鳥(niǎo),立馬跑進(jìn)里面,科技館的樣貌很豪華,4層,我立刻跑到“海洋精靈館”里面去看,哇,雖然沒(méi)有真的海洋生物,但是他們的骨架都清晰的展現(xiàn)在面前,我看的應(yīng)接不暇,真是太有趣了,海洋里兩種不同的,但卻差不多的生物多的去了,這次真是大開(kāi)眼界呀,要是今天不出來(lái),可錯(cuò)過(guò)了這么好看的情景。
令我印象最深的是臺(tái)風(fēng)體驗(yàn),有興趣的話,請(qǐng)隨我去目睹一下吧,那場(chǎng)景,那架勢(shì),準(zhǔn)會(huì)讓你拍手叫好。
臺(tái)風(fēng)體驗(yàn)